（一九八六年四月十二日第六屆全國(guó)人民代表大會(huì)第四次會(huì)議通過(guò)）

中華人民共和國(guó)主席令第三十七號(hào)

　　《中華人民共和國(guó)民法通則》已由中華人民共和國(guó)第六屆全國(guó)人民代表大會(huì)第四次會(huì)議于一九八六年四月十二日通過(guò)，現(xiàn)予公布，自一九八七年一月一日起施行。

　　中華人民共和國(guó)主席 李先念
　　一九八六年四月十二日

　　目 錄

　　第一章 基本原則

　　第二章 公民（自然人）
　　第一節(jié) 民事權(quán)利能力和民事行為能力
　　第二節(jié) 監(jiān)護(hù)
　　第三節(jié) 宣告失蹤和宣告死亡
　　第四節(jié) 個(gè)體工商戶、農(nóng)村承包經(jīng)營(yíng)戶
　　第五節(jié) 個(gè)人合伙

　　第三章 法人
　　第一節(jié) 一般規(guī)定
　　第二節(jié) 企業(yè)法人
　　第三節(jié) 機(jī)關(guān)、事業(yè)單位和社會(huì)團(tuán)體法人
　　第四節(jié) 聯(lián)營(yíng)

　　第四章 民事法律行為和代理
　　第一節(jié) 民事法律行為
　　第二節(jié) 代理

　　第五章 民事權(quán)利
　　第一節(jié) 財(cái)產(chǎn)所有權(quán)和與財(cái)產(chǎn)所有權(quán)有關(guān)的財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)
　　第二節(jié) 債權(quán)
　　第三節(jié) 知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)
　　第四節(jié) 人身權(quán)

　　第六章 民事責(zé)任
　　第一節(jié) 一般規(guī)定
　　第二節(jié) 違反合同的民事責(zé)任
　　第三節(jié) 侵權(quán)的民事責(zé)任
　　第四節(jié) 承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任的方式

　　第七章 訴訟時(shí)效

　　第八章 涉外民事關(guān)系的法律適用

　　第九章 附則

　　第一章 基本原則

　　第一條 為了保障公民、法人的合法的民事權(quán)益，正確調(diào)整民事關(guān)系，適應(yīng)社會(huì)主義現(xiàn)代化建設(shè)事業(yè)發(fā)展的需要，根據(jù)憲法和我國(guó)實(shí)際情況，總結(jié)民事活動(dòng)的實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn)，制定本法。

　　第二條 中華人民共和國(guó)民法調(diào)整平等主體的公民之間、法人之間、公民和法人之間的財(cái)產(chǎn)關(guān)系和人身關(guān)系。

　　第三條 當(dāng)事人在民事活動(dòng)中的地位平等。

　　第四條 民事活動(dòng)應(yīng)當(dāng)遵循自愿、公平、等價(jià)有償、誠(chéng)實(shí)信用的原則。

　　第五條 公民、法人的合法的民事權(quán)益受法律保護(hù)，任何組織和個(gè)人不得侵犯。

　　第六條 民事活動(dòng)必須遵守法律，法律沒(méi)有規(guī)定的，應(yīng)當(dāng)遵守國(guó)家政策。

　　第七條 民事活動(dòng)應(yīng)當(dāng)尊重社會(huì)公德，不得損害社會(huì)公共利益，破壞國(guó)家經(jīng)濟(jì)計(jì)劃，擾亂社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)秩序。

　　第八條 在中華人民共和國(guó)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的民事活動(dòng)，適用中華人民共和國(guó)法律，法律另有規(guī)定的除外。

　　本法關(guān)于公民的規(guī)定，適用于在中華人民共和國(guó)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的外國(guó)人、無(wú)國(guó)籍人，法律另有規(guī)定的除外。

　　第二章 公民（自然人） 第一節(jié) 民事權(quán)利能力和民事行為能力

　　第九條 公民從出生時(shí)起到死亡時(shí)止，具有民事權(quán)利能力，依法享有民事權(quán)利，承擔(dān)民事義務(wù)。

　　第十條 公民的民事權(quán)利能力一律平等。

　　第十一條 十八周歲以上的公民是成年人，具有完全民事行為能力，可以獨(dú)立進(jìn)行民事活動(dòng)，是完全民事行為能力人。

　　十六周歲以上不滿十八周歲的公民，以自己的勞動(dòng)收入為主要生活來(lái)源的，視為完全民事行為能力人。

　　第十二條 十周歲以上的未成年人是限制民事行為能力人，可以進(jìn)行與他的年齡、智力相適應(yīng)的民事活動(dòng)；其他民事活動(dòng)由他的法定代理人代理，或者征得他的法定代理人的同意。

　　不滿十周歲的未成年人是無(wú)民事行為能力人，由他的法定代理人代理民事活動(dòng)。

　　第十三條 不能辨認(rèn)自己行為的精神病人是無(wú)民事行為能力人，由他的法定代理人代理民事活動(dòng)。

　　不能完全辨認(rèn)自己行為的精神病人是限制民事行為能力人，可以進(jìn)行與他的精神健康狀況相適應(yīng)的民事活動(dòng)；其他民事活動(dòng)由他的法定代理人代理，或者征得他的法定代理人的同意。

　　第十四條 無(wú)民事行為能力人、限制民事行為能力人的監(jiān)護(hù)人是他的法定代理人。

　　第十五條 公民以他的戶籍所在地的居住地為住所，經(jīng)常居住地與住所不一致的，經(jīng)常居住地視為住所。

　　第二章 公民（自然人） 第二節(jié) 監(jiān) 護(hù)

　　第十六條 未成年人的父母是未成年人的監(jiān)護(hù)人。

　　未成年人的父母已經(jīng)死亡或者沒(méi)有監(jiān)護(hù)能力的，由下列人員中有監(jiān)護(hù)能力的人擔(dān)任監(jiān)護(hù)人：

　�。ㄒ唬┳娓改�、外祖父母；

　�。ǘ�）兄、姐；

　�。ㄈ�）關(guān)系密切的其他親屬、朋友愿意承擔(dān)監(jiān)護(hù)責(zé)任，經(jīng)未成年人的父、母的所在單位或者未成年人住所地的居民委員會(huì)、村民委員會(huì)同意的。

　　對(duì)擔(dān)任監(jiān)護(hù)人有爭(zhēng)議的，由未成年人的父、母的所在單位或者未成年人住所地的居民委員會(huì)、村民委員會(huì)在近親屬中指定。對(duì)指定不服提起訴訟的，由人民法院裁決。

　　沒(méi)有第一款、第二款規(guī)定的監(jiān)護(hù)人的，由未成年人的父、母的所在單位或者未成年人住所地的居民委員會(huì)、村民委員會(huì)或者民政部門擔(dān)任監(jiān)護(hù)人。

　　第十七條 無(wú)民事行為能力或者限制民事行為能力的精神病人，由下列人員擔(dān)任監(jiān)護(hù)人：

　�。ㄒ唬┡渑�；

　�。ǘ�）父母；

　�。ㄈ�）成年子女；

　�。ㄋ模┢渌�近親屬；

　�。ㄎ澹╆P(guān)系密切的其他親屬、朋友愿意承擔(dān)監(jiān)護(hù)責(zé)任，經(jīng)精神病人的所在單位或者住所地的居民委員會(huì)、村民委員會(huì)同意的。

　　對(duì)擔(dān)任監(jiān)護(hù)人有爭(zhēng)議的，由精神病人的所在單位或者住所地的居民委員會(huì)、村民委員會(huì)在近親屬中指定。對(duì)指定不服提起訴訟的，由人民法院裁決。

　　沒(méi)有第一款規(guī)定的監(jiān)護(hù)人的，由精神病人的所在單位或者住所地的居民委員會(huì)、村民委員會(huì)或者民政部門擔(dān)任監(jiān)護(hù)人。

　　第十八條 監(jiān)護(hù)人應(yīng)當(dāng)履行監(jiān)護(hù)職責(zé)，保護(hù)被監(jiān)護(hù)人的人身、財(cái)產(chǎn)及其他合法權(quán)益，除為被監(jiān)護(hù)人的利益外，不得處理被監(jiān)護(hù)人的財(cái)產(chǎn)。

　　監(jiān)護(hù)人依法履行監(jiān)護(hù)的權(quán)利，受法律保護(hù)。

　　監(jiān)護(hù)人不履行監(jiān)護(hù)職責(zé)或者侵害被監(jiān)護(hù)人的合法權(quán)益的，應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)責(zé)任；給被監(jiān)護(hù)人造成財(cái)產(chǎn)損失的，應(yīng)當(dāng)賠償損失。人民法院可以根據(jù)有關(guān)人員或者有關(guān)單位的申請(qǐng)，撤銷監(jiān)護(hù)人的資格。

　　第十九條 精神病人的利害關(guān)系人，可以向人民法院申請(qǐng)宣告精神病人為無(wú)民事行為能力人或者限制民事行為能力人。

　　被人民法院宣告為無(wú)民事行為能力人或者限制民事行為能力人的，根據(jù)他健康恢復(fù)的狀況，經(jīng)本人或者利害關(guān)系人申請(qǐng)，人民法院可以宣告他為限制民事行為能力人或者完全民事行為能力人。

　　第二章 公民（自然人） 第三節(jié) 宣告失蹤和宣告死亡

　　第二十條 公民下落不明滿二年的，利害關(guān)系人可以向人民法院申請(qǐng)宣告他為失蹤人。

　　戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間下落不明的，下落不明的時(shí)間從戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)結(jié)束之日起計(jì)算。

　　第二十一條 失蹤人的財(cái)產(chǎn)由他的配偶、父母、成年子女或者關(guān)系密切的其他親屬、朋友代管。代管有爭(zhēng)議的，沒(méi)有以上規(guī)定的人或者以上規(guī)定的人無(wú)能力代管的，由人民法院指定的人代管。

　　失蹤人所欠稅款、債務(wù)和應(yīng)付的其他費(fèi)用，由代管人從失蹤人的財(cái)產(chǎn)中支付。

　　第二十二條 被宣告失蹤的人重新出現(xiàn)或者確知他的下落，經(jīng)本人或者利害關(guān)系人申請(qǐng)，人民法院應(yīng)當(dāng)撤銷對(duì)他的失蹤宣告。

　　第二十三條 公民有下列情形之一的，利害關(guān)系人可以向人民法院申請(qǐng)宣告他死亡：

　�。ㄒ唬┫侣洳幻鳚M四年的；

　�。ǘ�）因意外事故下落不明，從事故發(fā)生之日起滿二年的。

　　戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間下落不明的，下落不明的時(shí)間從戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)結(jié)束之日起計(jì)算。

　　第二十四條 被宣告死亡的人重新出現(xiàn)或者確知他沒(méi)有死亡，經(jīng)本人或者利害關(guān)系人申請(qǐng)，人民法院應(yīng)當(dāng)撤銷對(duì)他的死亡宣告。

　　有民事行為能力人在被宣告死亡期間實(shí)施的民事法律行為有效。

　　第二十五條 被撤銷死亡宣告的人有權(quán)請(qǐng)求返還財(cái)產(chǎn)。依照繼承法取得他的財(cái)產(chǎn)的公民或者組織，應(yīng)當(dāng)返還原物；原物不存在的，給予適當(dāng)補(bǔ)償。

　　第二章 公民（自然人） 第四節(jié) 個(gè)體工商戶、農(nóng)村承包經(jīng)營(yíng)戶

　　第二十六條 公民在法律允許的范圍內(nèi)，依法經(jīng)核準(zhǔn)登記，從事工商業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)的，為個(gè)體工商戶。個(gè)體工商戶可以起字號(hào)。

　　第二十七條 農(nóng)村集體經(jīng)濟(jì)組織的成員，在法律允許的范圍內(nèi)，按照承包合同規(guī)定從事商品經(jīng)營(yíng)的，為農(nóng)村承包經(jīng)營(yíng)戶。

　　第二十八條 個(gè)體工商戶、農(nóng)村承包經(jīng)營(yíng)戶的合法權(quán)益，受法律保護(hù)。

　　第二十九條 個(gè)體工商戶、農(nóng)村承包經(jīng)營(yíng)戶的債務(wù)，個(gè)人經(jīng)營(yíng)的，以個(gè)人財(cái)產(chǎn)承擔(dān)；家庭經(jīng)營(yíng)的，以家庭財(cái)產(chǎn)承擔(dān)。

　　第二章 公民（自然人） 第五節(jié) 個(gè)人合伙

　　第三十條 個(gè)人合伙是指兩個(gè)以上公民按照協(xié)議，各自提供資金、實(shí)物、技術(shù)等，合伙經(jīng)營(yíng)、共同勞動(dòng)。

　　第三十一條 合伙人應(yīng)當(dāng)對(duì)出資數(shù)額、盈余分配、債務(wù)承擔(dān)、入伙、退伙、合伙終止等事項(xiàng)，訂立書面協(xié)議。

　　第三十二條 合伙人投入的財(cái)產(chǎn)，由合伙人統(tǒng)一管理和使用。

　　合伙經(jīng)營(yíng)積累的財(cái)產(chǎn)，歸合伙人共有。

　　第三十三條 個(gè)人合伙可以起字號(hào)，依法經(jīng)核準(zhǔn)登記，在核準(zhǔn)登記的經(jīng)營(yíng)范圍內(nèi)從事經(jīng)營(yíng)。

　　第三十四條 個(gè)人合伙的經(jīng)營(yíng)活動(dòng)，由合伙人共同決定，合伙人有執(zhí)行和監(jiān)督的權(quán)利。

　　合伙人可以推舉負(fù)責(zé)人。合伙負(fù)責(zé)人和其他人員的經(jīng)營(yíng)活動(dòng)，由全體合伙人承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　第三十五條 合伙的債務(wù)，由合伙人按照出資比例或者協(xié)議的約定，以各自的財(cái)產(chǎn)承擔(dān)清償責(zé)任。

　　合伙人對(duì)合伙的債務(wù)承擔(dān)連帶責(zé)任，法律另有規(guī)定的除外。償還合伙債務(wù)超過(guò)自己應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)數(shù)額的合伙人，有權(quán)向其他合伙人追償。

　　第三章 法 人 第一節(jié) 一般規(guī)定

　　第三十六條 法人是具有民事權(quán)利能力和民事行為能力，依法獨(dú)立享有民事權(quán)利和承擔(dān)民事義務(wù)的組織。

　　法人的民事權(quán)利能力和民事行為能力，從法人成立時(shí)產(chǎn)生，到法人終止時(shí)消滅。

　　第三十七條 法人應(yīng)當(dāng)具備下列條件：

　�。ㄒ唬┮婪ǔ闪�；

　�。ǘ�）有必要的財(cái)產(chǎn)或者經(jīng)費(fèi)；

　　（三）有自己的名稱、組織機(jī)構(gòu)和場(chǎng)所；

　　（四）能夠獨(dú)立承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　第三十八條 依照法律或者法人組織章程規(guī)定，代表法人行使職權(quán)的負(fù)責(zé)人，是法人的法定代表人。

　　第三十九條 法人以它的主要辦事機(jī)構(gòu)所在地為住所。

　　第四十條 法人終止，應(yīng)當(dāng)依法進(jìn)行清算，停止清算范圍外的活動(dòng)。

　　第三章 法 人 第二節(jié) 企業(yè)法人

　　第四十一條 全民所有制企業(yè)、集體所有制企業(yè)有符合國(guó)家規(guī)定的資金數(shù)額，有組織章程、組織機(jī)構(gòu)和場(chǎng)所，能夠獨(dú)立承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任，經(jīng)主管機(jī)關(guān)核準(zhǔn)登記，取得法人資格。

　　在中華人民共和國(guó)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)設(shè)立的中外合資經(jīng)營(yíng)企業(yè)、中外合作經(jīng)營(yíng)企業(yè)和外資企業(yè)，具備法人條件的，依法經(jīng)工商行政管理機(jī)關(guān)核準(zhǔn)登記，取得中國(guó)法人資格。

　　第四十二條 企業(yè)法人應(yīng)當(dāng)在核準(zhǔn)登記的經(jīng)營(yíng)范圍內(nèi)從事經(jīng)營(yíng)。

　　第四十三條 企業(yè)法人對(duì)它的法定代表人和其他工作人員的經(jīng)營(yíng)活動(dòng)，承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　第四十四條 企業(yè)法人分立、合并或者有其他重要事項(xiàng)變更，應(yīng)當(dāng)向登記機(jī)關(guān)辦理登記并公告。

　　企業(yè)法人分立、合并，它的權(quán)利和義務(wù)由變更后的法人享有和承擔(dān)。

　　第四十五條 企業(yè)法人由于下列原因之一終止：

　�。ㄒ唬┮婪ū怀蜂N；

　�。ǘ�）解散；

　　（三）依法宣告破產(chǎn)；

　�。ㄋ模┢渌�原因。

　　第四十六條 企業(yè)法人終止，應(yīng)當(dāng)向登記機(jī)關(guān)辦理注銷登記并公告。

　　第四十七條 企業(yè)法人解散，應(yīng)當(dāng)成立清算組織，進(jìn)行清算。企業(yè)法人被撤銷、被宣告破產(chǎn)的，應(yīng)當(dāng)由主管機(jī)關(guān)或者人民法院組織有關(guān)機(jī)關(guān)和有關(guān)人員成立清算組織，進(jìn)行清算。

　　第四十八條 全民所有制企業(yè)法人以國(guó)家授予它經(jīng)營(yíng)管理的財(cái)產(chǎn)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。集體所有制企業(yè)法人以企業(yè)所有的財(cái)產(chǎn)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。中外合資經(jīng)營(yíng)企業(yè)法人、中外合作經(jīng)營(yíng)企業(yè)法人和外資企業(yè)法人以企業(yè)所有的財(cái)產(chǎn)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任，法律另有規(guī)定的除外。

　　第四十九條 企業(yè)法人有下列情形之一的，除法人承擔(dān)責(zé)任外，對(duì)法定代表人可以給予行政處分、罰款，構(gòu)成犯罪的，依法追究刑事責(zé)任：

　�。ㄒ唬┏�出登記機(jī)關(guān)核準(zhǔn)登記的經(jīng)營(yíng)范圍從事非法經(jīng)營(yíng)的；

　�。ǘ�）向登記機(jī)關(guān)、稅務(wù)機(jī)關(guān)隱瞞真實(shí)情況、弄虛作假的；

　�。ㄈ�）抽逃資金、隱匿財(cái)產(chǎn)逃避債務(wù)的；

　　（四）解散、被撤銷、被宣告破產(chǎn)后，擅自處理財(cái)產(chǎn)的；

　�。ㄎ澹┳兏�、終止時(shí)不及時(shí)申請(qǐng)辦理登記和公告，使利害關(guān)系人遭受重大損失的；

　　（六）從事法律禁止的其他活動(dòng)，損害國(guó)家利益或者社會(huì)公共利益的。

　　第三章 法 人 第三節(jié) 機(jī)關(guān)、事業(yè)單位和社會(huì)團(tuán)體法人

　　第五十條 有獨(dú)立經(jīng)費(fèi)的機(jī)關(guān)從成立之日起，具有法人資格。

　　具備法人條件的事業(yè)單位、社會(huì)團(tuán)體，依法不需要辦理法人登記的，從成立之日起，具有法人資格；依法需要辦理法人登記的，經(jīng)核準(zhǔn)登記，取得法人資格。

　　第三章 法 人 第四節(jié) 聯(lián) 營(yíng)

　　第五十一條 企業(yè)之間或者企業(yè)、事業(yè)單位之間聯(lián)營(yíng)，組成新的經(jīng)濟(jì)實(shí)體，獨(dú)立承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任、具備法人條件的，經(jīng)主管機(jī)關(guān)核準(zhǔn)登記，取得法人資格。

　　第五十二條 企業(yè)之間或者企業(yè)、事業(yè)單位之間聯(lián)營(yíng)，共同經(jīng)營(yíng)、不具備法人條件的，由聯(lián)營(yíng)各方按照出資比例或者協(xié)議的約定，以各自所有的或者經(jīng)營(yíng)管理的財(cái)產(chǎn)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。依照法律的規(guī)定或者協(xié)議的約定負(fù)連帶責(zé)任的，承擔(dān)連帶責(zé)任。

　　第五十三條 企業(yè)之間或者企業(yè)、事業(yè)單位之間聯(lián)營(yíng)，按照合同的約定各自獨(dú)立經(jīng)營(yíng)的，它的權(quán)利和義務(wù)由合同約定，各自承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　第四章 民事法律行為和代理 第一節(jié) 民事法律行為

　　第五十四條 民事法律行為是公民或者法人設(shè)立、變更、終止民事權(quán)利和民事義務(wù)的合法行為。

　　第五十五條 民事法律行為應(yīng)當(dāng)具備下列條件：

　　（一）行為人具有相應(yīng)的民事行為能力；

　�。ǘ�）意思表示真實(shí)；

　�。ㄈ�）不違反法律或者社會(huì)公共利益。

　　第五十六條 民事法律行為可以采取書面形式、口頭形式或者其他形式。法律規(guī)定是特定形式的，應(yīng)當(dāng)依照法律規(guī)定。

　　第五十七條 民事法律行為從成立時(shí)起具有法律約束力。行為人非依法律規(guī)定或者取得對(duì)方同意，不得擅自變更或者解除。

　　第五十八條 下列民事行為無(wú)效：

　�。ㄒ唬�無(wú)民事行為能力人實(shí)施的；

　�。ǘ�）限制民事行為能力人依法不能獨(dú)立實(shí)施的；

　�。ㄈ�）一方以欺詐、脅迫的手段或者乘人之危，使對(duì)方在違背真實(shí)意思的情況下所為的；

　�。ㄋ模�惡意串通，損害國(guó)家、集體或者第三人利益的；

　　（五）違反法律或者社會(huì)公共利益的；

　�。�六）經(jīng)濟(jì)合同違反國(guó)家指令性計(jì)劃的；

　�。ㄆ撸┮院戏ㄐ问窖谏w非法目的的。

　　無(wú)效的民事行為，從行為開始起就沒(méi)有法律約束力。

　　第五十九條 下列民事行為，一方有權(quán)請(qǐng)求人民法院或者仲裁機(jī)關(guān)予以變更或者撤銷：

　�。ㄒ唬┬袨槿藢�(duì)行為內(nèi)容有重大誤解的；

　�。ǘ�）顯失公平的。

　　被撤銷的民事行為從行為開始起無(wú)效。

　　第六十條 民事行為部分無(wú)效，不影響其他部分的效力的，其他部分仍然有效。

　　第六十一條 民事行為被確認(rèn)為無(wú)效或者被撤銷后，當(dāng)事人因該行為取得的財(cái)產(chǎn)，應(yīng)當(dāng)返還給受損失的一方。有過(guò)錯(cuò)的一方應(yīng)當(dāng)賠償對(duì)方因此所受的損失，對(duì)方都有過(guò)錯(cuò)的，應(yīng)當(dāng)各自承擔(dān)相應(yīng)的責(zé)任。

　　雙方惡意串通，實(shí)施民事行為損害國(guó)家的、集體的或者第三人的利益的，應(yīng)當(dāng)追繳雙方取得的財(cái)產(chǎn)，收歸國(guó)家、集體所有或者返還第三人。

　　第六十二條 民事法律行為可以附條件，附條件的民事法律行為在符合所附條件時(shí)生效。

　　第四章 民事法律行為和代理 第二節(jié) 代理

　　第六十三條 公民、法人可以通過(guò)代理人實(shí)施民事法律行為。

　　代理人在代理權(quán)限內(nèi)，以被代理人的名義實(shí)施民事法律行為。被代理人對(duì)代理人的代理行為，承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　依照法律規(guī)定或者按照雙方當(dāng)事人約定，應(yīng)當(dāng)由本人實(shí)施的民事法律行為，不得代理。

　　第六十四條 代理包括委托代理、法定代理和指定代理。

　　委托代理人按照被代理人的委托行使代理權(quán)，法定代理人依照法律的規(guī)定行使代理權(quán)，指定代理人按照人民法院或者指定單位的指定行使代理權(quán)。

　　第六十五條 民事法律行為的委托代理，可以用書面形式，也可以用口頭形式。法律規(guī)定用書面形式的，應(yīng)當(dāng)用書面形式。

　　書面委托代理的授權(quán)委托書應(yīng)當(dāng)載明代理人的姓名或者名稱、代理事項(xiàng)、權(quán)限和期間，并由委托人簽名或者蓋章。

　　委托書授權(quán)不明的，被代理人應(yīng)當(dāng)向第三人承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任，代理人負(fù)連帶責(zé)任。

　　第六十六條 沒(méi)有代理權(quán)、超越代理權(quán)或者代理權(quán)終止后的行為，只有經(jīng)過(guò)被代理人的追認(rèn)，被代理人才承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。未經(jīng)追認(rèn)的行為，由行為人承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。本人知道他人以本人名義實(shí)施民事行為而不作否認(rèn)表示的，視為同意。

　　代理人不履行職責(zé)而給被代理人造成損害的，應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　代理人和第三人串通，損害被代理人的利益的，由代理人和第三人負(fù)連帶責(zé)任。

　　第三人知道行為人沒(méi)有代理權(quán)、超越代理權(quán)或者代理權(quán)已終止還與行為人實(shí)施民事行為給他人造成損害的，由第三人和行為人負(fù)連帶責(zé)任。

　　第六十七條 代理人知道被委托代理的事項(xiàng)違法仍然進(jìn)行代理活動(dòng)的，或者被代理人知道代理人的代理行為違法不表示反對(duì)的，由被代理人和代理人負(fù)連帶責(zé)任。

　　第六十八條 委托代理人為被代理人的利益需要轉(zhuǎn)托他人代理的，應(yīng)當(dāng)事先取得被代理人的同意。事先沒(méi)有取得被代理人同意的，應(yīng)當(dāng)在事后及時(shí)告訴被代理人，如果被代理人不同意，由代理人對(duì)自己所轉(zhuǎn)托的人的行為負(fù)民事責(zé)任，但在緊急情況下，為了保護(hù)被代理人的利益而轉(zhuǎn)托他

　　人代理的除外。

　　第六十九條 有下列情形之一的，委托代理終止：

　　（一）代理期間屆滿或者代理事務(wù)完成；

　�。ǘ�）被代理人取消委托或者代理人辭去委托；

　�。ㄈ�）代理人死亡；

　�。ㄋ模┐�理人喪失民事行為能力；

　�。ㄎ澹┳鳛楸淮�理人或者代理人的法人終止。

　　第七十條 有下列情形之一的，法定代理或者指定代理終止：

　　（一）被代理人取得或者恢復(fù)民事行為能力；

　　（二）被代理人或者代理人死亡；

　�。ㄈ�）代理人喪失民事行為能力；

　�。ㄋ模┲付ù�理的人民法院或者指定單位取消指定；

　�。ㄎ澹┯善渌�原因引起的被代理人和代理人之間的監(jiān)護(hù)關(guān)系消滅。

　　第五章 民事權(quán)利 第一節(jié) 財(cái)產(chǎn)所有權(quán)和與財(cái)產(chǎn)所有權(quán)有關(guān)的財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)

　　第七十一條 財(cái)產(chǎn)所有權(quán)是指所有人依法對(duì)自己的財(cái)產(chǎn)享有占有、使用、收益和處分的權(quán)利。

　　第七十二條 財(cái)產(chǎn)所有權(quán)的取得，不得違反法律規(guī)定。

　　按照合同或者其他合法方式取得財(cái)產(chǎn)的，財(cái)產(chǎn)所有權(quán)從財(cái)產(chǎn)交付時(shí)起轉(zhuǎn)移，法律另有規(guī)定或者當(dāng)事人另有約定的除外。

　　第七十三條 國(guó)家財(cái)產(chǎn)屬于全民所有。

　　國(guó)家財(cái)產(chǎn)神圣不可侵犯，禁止任何組織或者個(gè)人侵占、哄搶、私分、截留、破壞。

　　第七十四條 勞動(dòng)群眾集體組織的財(cái)產(chǎn)屬于勞動(dòng)群眾集體所有，包括：

　�。ㄒ唬┓�律規(guī)定為集體所有的土地和森林、山嶺、草原、荒地、灘涂等；

　　（二）集體經(jīng)濟(jì)組織的財(cái)產(chǎn)；

　　（三）集體所有的建筑物、水庫(kù)、農(nóng)田水利設(shè)施和教育、科學(xué)、文化、衛(wèi)生、體育等設(shè)施；

　�。ㄋ模┘�體所有的其他財(cái)產(chǎn)。

　　集體所有的土地依照法律屬于村農(nóng)民集體所有，由村農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)合作社等農(nóng)業(yè)集體經(jīng)濟(jì)組織或者村民委員會(huì)經(jīng)營(yíng)、管理。已經(jīng)屬于鄉(xiāng)（鎮(zhèn)）農(nóng)民集體經(jīng)濟(jì)組織所有的，可以屬于鄉(xiāng)（鎮(zhèn)）農(nóng)民集體所有。

　　集體所有的財(cái)產(chǎn)受法律保護(hù)，禁止任何組織或者個(gè)人侵占、哄搶、私分、破壞或者非法查封、扣押、凍結(jié)、沒(méi)收。

　　第七十五條 公民的個(gè)人財(cái)產(chǎn)，包括公民的合法收入、房屋、儲(chǔ)蓄、生活用品、文物、圖書資料、林木、牲畜和法律允許公民所有的生產(chǎn)資料以及其他合法財(cái)產(chǎn)。

　　公民的合法財(cái)產(chǎn)受法律保護(hù)，禁止任何組織或者個(gè)人侵占、哄搶、破壞或者非法查封、扣押、凍結(jié)、沒(méi)收。

　　第七十六條 公民依法享有財(cái)產(chǎn)繼承權(quán)。

　　第七十七條 社會(huì)團(tuán)體包括宗教團(tuán)體的合法財(cái)產(chǎn)受法律保護(hù)。

　　第七十八條 財(cái)產(chǎn)可以由兩個(gè)以上的公民、法人共有。

　　共有分為按份共有和共同共有。按份共有人按照各自的份額，對(duì)共有財(cái)產(chǎn)分享權(quán)利，分擔(dān)義務(wù)。共同共有人對(duì)共有財(cái)產(chǎn)享有權(quán)利，承擔(dān)義務(wù)。

　　按份共有財(cái)產(chǎn)的每個(gè)共有人有權(quán)要求將自己的份額分出或者轉(zhuǎn)讓。但在出售時(shí)，其他共有人在同等條件下，有優(yōu)先購(gòu)買的權(quán)利。

　　第七十九條 所有人不明的埋藏物、隱藏物，歸國(guó)家所有。接收單位應(yīng)當(dāng)對(duì)上繳的單位或者個(gè)人，給予表?yè)P(yáng)或者物質(zhì)獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)。

　　拾得遺失物、漂流物或者失散的飼養(yǎng)動(dòng)物，應(yīng)當(dāng)歸還失主，因此而支出的費(fèi)用由失主償還。

　　第八十條 國(guó)家所有的土地，可以依法由全民所有制單位使用，也可以依法確定由集體所有制單位使用，國(guó)家保護(hù)它的使用、收益的權(quán)利；使用單位有管理、保護(hù)、合理利用的義務(wù)。

　　公民、集體依法對(duì)集體所有的或者國(guó)家所有由集體使用的土地的承包經(jīng)營(yíng)權(quán)，受法律保護(hù)。承包雙方的權(quán)利和義務(wù)，依照法律由承包合同規(guī)定。

　　土地不得買賣、出租、抵押或者以其他形式非法轉(zhuǎn)讓。

　　第八十一條 國(guó)家所有的森林、山嶺、草原、荒地、灘涂、水面等自然資源，可以依法由全民所有制單位使用，也可以依法確定由集體所有制單位使用，國(guó)家保護(hù)它的使用、收益的權(quán)利；使用單位有管理、保護(hù)、合理利用的義務(wù)。

　　國(guó)家所有的礦藏，可以依法由全民所有制單位和集體所有制單位開采，也可以依法由公民采挖。國(guó)家保護(hù)合法的采礦權(quán)。

　　公民、集體依法對(duì)集體所有的或者國(guó)家所有由集體使用的森林、山嶺、草原、荒地、灘涂、水面的承包經(jīng)營(yíng)權(quán)，受法律保護(hù)。承包雙方的權(quán)利和義務(wù)，依照法律由承包合同規(guī)定。

　　國(guó)家所有的礦藏、水流，國(guó)家所有的和法律規(guī)定屬于集體所有的林地、山嶺、草原、荒地、灘涂不得買賣、出租、抵押或者以其他形式非法轉(zhuǎn)讓。

　　第八十二條 全民所有制企業(yè)對(duì)國(guó)家授予它經(jīng)營(yíng)管理的財(cái)產(chǎn)依法享有經(jīng)營(yíng)權(quán)，受法律保護(hù)。

　　第八十三條 不動(dòng)產(chǎn)的相鄰各方，應(yīng)當(dāng)按照有利生產(chǎn)、方便生活、團(tuán)結(jié)互助、公平合理的精神，正確處理截水、排水、通行、通風(fēng)、采光等方面的相鄰關(guān)系。給相鄰方造成妨礙或者損失的，應(yīng)當(dāng)停止侵害，排除妨礙，賠償損失。

　　第五章 民事權(quán)利 第二節(jié) 債 權(quán)

　　第八十四條 債是按照合同的約定或者依照法律的規(guī)定，在當(dāng)事人之間產(chǎn)生的特定的權(quán)利和義務(wù)關(guān)系，享有權(quán)利的人是債權(quán)人，負(fù)有義務(wù)的人是債務(wù)人。

　　債權(quán)人有權(quán)要求債務(wù)人按照合同的約定或者依照法律的規(guī)定履行義務(wù)。

　　第八十五條 合同是當(dāng)事人之間設(shè)立、變更、終止民事關(guān)系的協(xié)議。依法成立的合同，受法律保護(hù)。

　　第八十六條 債權(quán)人為二人以上的，按照確定的份額分享權(quán)利。債務(wù)人為二人以上的，按照確定的份額分擔(dān)義務(wù)。

　　第八十七條 債權(quán)人或者債務(wù)人一方人數(shù)為二人以上的，依照法律的規(guī)定或者當(dāng)事人的約定，享有連帶權(quán)利的每個(gè)債權(quán)人，都有權(quán)要求債務(wù)人履行義務(wù)；負(fù)有連帶義務(wù)的每個(gè)債務(wù)人，都負(fù)有清償全部債務(wù)的義務(wù)，履行了義務(wù)的人，有權(quán)要求其他負(fù)有連帶義務(wù)的人償付他應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)的份額。

　　第八十八條 合同的當(dāng)事人應(yīng)當(dāng)按照合同的約定，全部履行自己的義務(wù)。

　　合同中有關(guān)質(zhì)量、期限、地點(diǎn)或者價(jià)款約定不明確，按照合同有關(guān)條款內(nèi)容不能確定，當(dāng)事人又不能通過(guò)協(xié)商達(dá)成協(xié)議的，適用下列規(guī)定：

　�。ㄒ唬┵|(zhì)量要求不明確的，按照國(guó)家質(zhì)量標(biāo)準(zhǔn)履行，沒(méi)有國(guó)家質(zhì)量標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的，按照通常標(biāo)準(zhǔn)履行。

　�。ǘ�）履行期限不明確的，債務(wù)人可以隨時(shí)向債權(quán)人履行義務(wù)，債權(quán)人也可以隨時(shí)要求債務(wù)人履行義務(wù)，但應(yīng)當(dāng)給對(duì)方必要的準(zhǔn)備時(shí)間。

　　（三）履行地點(diǎn)不明確，給付貨幣的，在接受給付一方的所在地履行，其他標(biāo)的在履行義務(wù)一方的所在地履行。

　�。ㄋ模﹥r(jià)款約定不明確的，按照國(guó)家規(guī)定的價(jià)格履行；沒(méi)有國(guó)家規(guī)定價(jià)格的，參照市場(chǎng)價(jià)格或者同類物品的價(jià)格或者同類勞務(wù)的報(bào)酬標(biāo)準(zhǔn)履行。

　　合同對(duì)專利申請(qǐng)權(quán)沒(méi)有約定的，完成發(fā)明創(chuàng)造的當(dāng)事人享有申請(qǐng)權(quán)。

　　合同對(duì)科技成果的使用權(quán)沒(méi)有約定的，當(dāng)事人都有使用的權(quán)利。

　　第八十九條 依照法律的規(guī)定或者按照當(dāng)事人的約定，可以采用下列方式擔(dān)保債務(wù)的履行：

　�。ㄒ唬┍ＷC人向債權(quán)人保證債務(wù)人履行債務(wù)，債務(wù)人不履行債務(wù)的，按照約定由保證人履行或者承擔(dān)連帶責(zé)任；保證人履行債務(wù)后，有權(quán)向債務(wù)人追償。

　�。ǘ�）債務(wù)人或者第三人可以提供一定的財(cái)產(chǎn)作為抵押物。債務(wù)人不履行債務(wù)的，債權(quán)人有權(quán)依照法律的規(guī)定以抵押物折價(jià)或者以變賣抵押物的價(jià)款優(yōu)先得到償還。

　�。ㄈ�）當(dāng)事人一方在法律規(guī)定的范圍內(nèi)可以向?qū)Ψ浇o付定金。債務(wù)人履行債務(wù)后，定金應(yīng)當(dāng)?shù)肿鲀r(jià)款或者收回。給付定金的一方不履行債務(wù)的，無(wú)權(quán)要求返還定金；接受定金的一方不履行債務(wù)的，應(yīng)當(dāng)雙倍返還定金。

　�。ㄋ模┌凑蘸贤�約定一方占有對(duì)方的財(cái)產(chǎn)，對(duì)方不按照合同給付應(yīng)付款項(xiàng)超過(guò)約定期限的，占有人有權(quán)留置該財(cái)產(chǎn)，依照法律的規(guī)定以留置財(cái)產(chǎn)折價(jià)或者以變賣該財(cái)產(chǎn)的價(jià)款優(yōu)先得到償還。

　　第九十條 合法的借貸關(guān)系受法律保護(hù)。

　　第九十一條 合同一方將合同的權(quán)利、義務(wù)全部或者部分轉(zhuǎn)讓給第三人的，應(yīng)當(dāng)取得合同另一方的同意，并不得牟利。依照法律規(guī)定應(yīng)當(dāng)由國(guó)家批準(zhǔn)的合同，需經(jīng)原批準(zhǔn)機(jī)關(guān)批準(zhǔn)。但是，法律另有規(guī)定或者原合同另有約定的除外。

　　第九十二條 沒(méi)有合法根據(jù)，取得不當(dāng)利益，造成他人損失的，應(yīng)當(dāng)將取得的不當(dāng)利益返還受損失的人。

　　第九十三條 沒(méi)有法定的或者約定的義務(wù)，為避免他人利益受損失進(jìn)行管理或者服務(wù)的，有權(quán)要求受益人償付由此而支付的必要費(fèi)用。

　　第五章 民事權(quán)利 第三節(jié) 知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)

　　第九十四條 公民、法人享有著作權(quán)（版權(quán)），依法有署名、發(fā)表、出版、獲得報(bào)酬等權(quán)利。

　　第九十五條 公民、法人依法取得的專利權(quán)受法律保護(hù)。

　　第九十六條 法人、個(gè)體工商戶、個(gè)人合伙依法取得的商標(biāo)專用權(quán)受法律保護(hù)。

　　第九十七條 公民對(duì)自己的發(fā)現(xiàn)享有發(fā)現(xiàn)權(quán)。發(fā)現(xiàn)人有權(quán)申請(qǐng)領(lǐng)取發(fā)現(xiàn)證書、獎(jiǎng)金或者其他獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)。

　　公民對(duì)自己的發(fā)明或者其他科技成果，有權(quán)申請(qǐng)領(lǐng)取榮譽(yù)證書、獎(jiǎng)金或者其他獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)。

　　第五章 民事權(quán)利 第四節(jié) 人 身 權(quán)

　　第九十八條 公民享有生命健康權(quán)。

　　第九十九條 公民享有姓名權(quán)，有權(quán)決定、使用和依照規(guī)定改變自己的姓名，禁止他人干涉、盜用、假冒。

　　法人、個(gè)體工商戶、個(gè)人合伙享有名稱權(quán)。企業(yè)法人、個(gè)體工商戶、個(gè)人合伙有權(quán)使用、依法轉(zhuǎn)讓自己的名稱。

　　第一百條 公民享有肖像權(quán)，未經(jīng)本人同意，不得以營(yíng)利為目的使用公民的肖像。

　　第一百零一條 公民、法人享有名譽(yù)權(quán)，公民的人格尊嚴(yán)受法律保護(hù)，禁止用侮辱、誹謗等方式損害公民、法人的名譽(yù)。

　　第一百零二條 公民、法人享有榮譽(yù)權(quán)，禁止非法剝奪公民、法人的榮譽(yù)稱號(hào)。

　　第一百零三條 公民享有婚姻自主權(quán)，禁止買賣、包辦婚姻和其他干涉婚姻自由的行為。

　　第一百零四條 婚姻、家庭、老人、母親和兒童受法律保護(hù)。

　　殘疾人的合法權(quán)益受法律保護(hù)。

　　第一百零五條 婦女享有同男子平等的民事權(quán)利。

　　第六章 民事責(zé)任 第一節(jié) 一般規(guī)定

　　第一百零六條 公民、法人違反合同或者不履行其他義務(wù)的，應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　公民、法人由于過(guò)錯(cuò)侵害國(guó)家的、集體的財(cái)產(chǎn)，侵害他人財(cái)產(chǎn)、人身的，應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　沒(méi)有過(guò)錯(cuò)，但法律規(guī)定應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任的，應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　第一百零七條 因不可抗力不能履行合同或者造成他人損害的，不承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任，法律另有規(guī)定的除外。

　　第一百零八條 債務(wù)應(yīng)當(dāng)清償。暫時(shí)無(wú)力償還的，經(jīng)債權(quán)人同意或者人民法院裁決，可以由債務(wù)人分期償還。有能力償還拒不償還的，由人民法院判決強(qiáng)制償還。

　　第一百零九條 因防止、制止國(guó)家的、集體的財(cái)產(chǎn)或者他人的財(cái)產(chǎn)、人身遭受侵害而使自己受到損害的，由侵害人承擔(dān)賠償責(zé)任，受益人也可以給予適當(dāng)?shù)难a(bǔ)償。

　　第一百一十條 對(duì)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任的公民、法人需要追究行政責(zé)任的，應(yīng)當(dāng)追究行政責(zé)任；構(gòu)成犯罪的，對(duì)公民、法人的法定代表人應(yīng)當(dāng)依法追究刑事責(zé)任。

　　第六章 民事責(zé)任 第二節(jié) 違反合同的民事責(zé)任

　　第一百一十一條 當(dāng)事人一方不履行合同義務(wù)或者履行合同義務(wù)不符合約定條件的，另一方有權(quán)要求履行或者采取補(bǔ)救措施，并有權(quán)要求賠償損失。

　　第一百一十二條 當(dāng)事人一方違反合同的賠償責(zé)任，應(yīng)當(dāng)相當(dāng)于另一方因此所受到的損失。

　　當(dāng)事人可以在合同中約定，一方違反合同時(shí)，向另一方支付一定數(shù)額的違約金；也可以在合同中約定對(duì)于違反合同而產(chǎn)生的損失賠償額的計(jì)算方法。

　　第一百一十三條 當(dāng)事人雙方都違反合同的，應(yīng)當(dāng)分別承擔(dān)各自應(yīng)負(fù)的民事責(zé)任。

　　第一百一十四條 當(dāng)事人一方因另一方違反合同受到損失的，應(yīng)當(dāng)及時(shí)采取措施防止損失的擴(kuò)大；沒(méi)有及時(shí)采取措施致使損失擴(kuò)大的，無(wú)權(quán)就擴(kuò)大的損失要求賠償。

　　第一百一十五條 合同的變更或者解除，不影響當(dāng)事人要求賠償損失的權(quán)利。

　　第一百一十六條 當(dāng)事人一方由于上級(jí)機(jī)關(guān)的原因，不能履行合同義務(wù)的，應(yīng)當(dāng)按照合同約定向另一方賠償損失或者采取其他補(bǔ)救措施，再由上級(jí)機(jī)關(guān)對(duì)它因此受到的損失負(fù)責(zé)處理。

　　第六章 民事責(zé)任 第三節(jié) 侵權(quán)的民事責(zé)任

　　第一百一十七條 侵占國(guó)家的、集體的財(cái)產(chǎn)或者他人財(cái)產(chǎn)的，應(yīng)當(dāng)返還財(cái)產(chǎn)，不能返還財(cái)產(chǎn)的，應(yīng)當(dāng)折價(jià)賠償。

　　損壞國(guó)家的、集體的財(cái)產(chǎn)或者他人財(cái)產(chǎn)的，應(yīng)當(dāng)恢復(fù)原狀或者折價(jià)賠償。

　　受害人因此遭受其他重大損失的，侵害人并應(yīng)當(dāng)賠償損失。

　　第一百一十八條 公民、法人的著作權(quán)（版權(quán)）、專利權(quán)、商標(biāo)專用權(quán)、發(fā)現(xiàn)權(quán)、發(fā)明權(quán)和其他科技成果權(quán)受到剽竊、篡改、假冒等侵害的，有權(quán)要求停止侵害，消除影響，賠償損失。

　　第一百一十九條 侵害公民身體造成傷害的，應(yīng)當(dāng)賠償醫(yī)療費(fèi)、因誤工減少的收入、殘廢者生活補(bǔ)助費(fèi)等費(fèi)用；造成死亡的，并應(yīng)當(dāng)支付喪葬費(fèi)、死者生前扶養(yǎng)的人必要的生活費(fèi)等費(fèi)用。

　　第一百二十條 公民的姓名權(quán)、肖像權(quán)、名譽(yù)權(quán)、榮譽(yù)權(quán)受到侵害的，有權(quán)要求停止侵害，恢復(fù)名譽(yù)，消除影響，賠禮道歉，并可以要求賠償損失。

　　法人的名稱權(quán)、名譽(yù)權(quán)、榮譽(yù)權(quán)受到侵害的，適用前款規(guī)定。

　　第一百二十一條 國(guó)家機(jī)關(guān)或者國(guó)家機(jī)關(guān)工作人員在執(zhí)行職務(wù)中，侵犯公民、法人的合法權(quán)益造成損害的，應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　第一百二十二條 因產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量不合格造成他人財(cái)產(chǎn)、人身?yè)p害的，產(chǎn)品制造者、銷售者應(yīng)當(dāng)依法承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。運(yùn)輸者、倉(cāng)儲(chǔ)者對(duì)此負(fù)有責(zé)任的，產(chǎn)品制造者、銷售者有權(quán)要求賠償損失。

　　第一百二十三條 從事高空、高壓、易燃、易爆、劇毒、放射性、高速運(yùn)輸工具等對(duì)周圍環(huán)境有高度危險(xiǎn)的作業(yè)造成他人損害的，應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任；如果能夠證明損害是由受害人故意造成的，不承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　第一百二十四條 違反國(guó)家保護(hù)環(huán)境防止污染的規(guī)定，污染環(huán)境造成他人損害的，應(yīng)當(dāng)依法承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　第一百二十五條 在公共場(chǎng)所、道旁或者通道上挖坑、修繕安裝地下設(shè)施等，沒(méi)有設(shè)置明顯標(biāo)志和采取安全措施造成他人損害的，施工人應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　第一百二十六條 建筑物或者其他設(shè)施以及建筑物上的擱置物、懸掛物發(fā)生倒塌、脫落、墜落造成他人損害的，它的所有人或者管理人應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任，但能夠證明自己沒(méi)有過(guò)錯(cuò)的除外。

　　第一百二十七條 飼養(yǎng)的動(dòng)物造成他人損害的，動(dòng)物飼養(yǎng)人或者管理人應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任；由于受害人的過(guò)錯(cuò)造成損害的，動(dòng)物飼養(yǎng)人或者管理人不承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任；由于第三人的過(guò)錯(cuò)造成損害的，第三人應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　第一百二十八條 因正當(dāng)防衛(wèi)造成損害的，不承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。正當(dāng)防衛(wèi)超過(guò)必要的限度，造成不應(yīng)有的損害的，應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)適當(dāng)?shù)拿袷仑?zé)任。

　　第一百二十九條 因緊急避險(xiǎn)造成損害的，由引起險(xiǎn)情發(fā)生的人承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。如果危險(xiǎn)是由自然原因引起的，緊急避險(xiǎn)人不承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任或者承擔(dān)適當(dāng)?shù)拿袷仑?zé)任。因緊急避險(xiǎn)采取措施不當(dāng)或者超過(guò)必要的限度，造成不應(yīng)有的損害的，緊急避險(xiǎn)人應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)適當(dāng)?shù)拿袷仑?zé)任。

　　第一百三十條 二人以上共同侵權(quán)造成他人損害的，應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)連帶責(zé)任。

　　第一百三十一條 受害人對(duì)于損害的發(fā)生也有過(guò)錯(cuò)的，可以減輕侵害人的民事責(zé)任。

　　第一百三十二條 當(dāng)事人對(duì)造成損害都沒(méi)有過(guò)錯(cuò)的，可以根據(jù)實(shí)際情況，由當(dāng)事人分擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。

　　第一百三十三條 無(wú)民事行為能力人、限制民事行為能力人造成他人損害的，由監(jiān)護(hù)人承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任。監(jiān)護(hù)人盡了監(jiān)護(hù)責(zé)任的，可以適當(dāng)減輕他的民事責(zé)任。

　　有財(cái)產(chǎn)的無(wú)民事行為能力人、限制民事行為能力人造成他人損害的，從本人財(cái)產(chǎn)中支付賠償費(fèi)用。不足部分，由監(jiān)護(hù)人適當(dāng)賠償，但單位擔(dān)任監(jiān)護(hù)人的除外。

　　第六章 民事責(zé)任

　　第四節(jié)承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任的方式

　　第一百三十四條 承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任的方式主要有：

　�。ㄒ唬┩Ｖ骨趾Γ�

　�。ǘ�）排除妨礙；

　　（三）消除危險(xiǎn)；

　　（四）返還財(cái)產(chǎn)；

　　（五）恢復(fù)原狀；

　�。�六）修理、重作、更換；

　　（七）賠償損失；

　�。ò耍┲Ц哆`約金；

　�。ň牛┫�除影響、恢復(fù)名譽(yù)；

　�。ㄊ�）賠禮道歉。

　　以上承擔(dān)民事責(zé)任的方式，可以單獨(dú)適用，也可以合并適用。

　　人民法院審理民事案件，除適用上述規(guī)定外，還可以予以訓(xùn)誡、責(zé)令具結(jié)悔過(guò)、收繳進(jìn)行非法活動(dòng)的財(cái)物和非法所得，并可以依照法律規(guī)定處以罰款、拘留。

　　第七章 訴訟時(shí)效

　　第一百三十五條 向人民法院請(qǐng)求保護(hù)民事權(quán)利的訴訟時(shí)效期間為二年，法律另有規(guī)定的除外。

　　第一百三十六條 下列的訴訟時(shí)效期間為一年：

　�。ㄒ唬┥眢w受到傷害要求賠償?shù)模?/P>

　　（二）出售質(zhì)量不合格的商品未聲明的；

　�。ㄈ�）延付或者拒付租金的；

　　（四）寄存財(cái)物被丟失或者損毀的。

　　第一百三十七條 訴訟時(shí)效期間從知道或者應(yīng)當(dāng)知道權(quán)利被侵害時(shí)起計(jì)算。但是，從權(quán)利被侵害之日起超過(guò)二十年的，人民法院不予保護(hù)。有特殊情況的，人民法院可以延長(zhǎng)訴訟時(shí)效期間。

　　第一百三十八條 超過(guò)訴訟時(shí)效期間，當(dāng)事人自愿履行的，不受訴訟時(shí)效限制。

　　第一百三十九條 在訴訟時(shí)效期間的最后六個(gè)月內(nèi)，因不可抗力或者其他障礙不能行使請(qǐng)求權(quán)的，訴訟時(shí)效中止。從中止時(shí)效的原因消除之日起，訴訟時(shí)效期間繼續(xù)計(jì)算。

　　第一百四十條 訴訟時(shí)效因提起訴訟、當(dāng)事人一方提出要求或者同意履行義務(wù)而中斷。從中斷時(shí)起，訴訟時(shí)效期間重新計(jì)算。

　　第一百四十一條 法律對(duì)訴訟時(shí)效另有規(guī)定的，依照法律規(guī)定。

　　第八章 涉外民事關(guān)系的法律適用

　　第一百四十二條 涉外民事關(guān)系的法律適用，依照本章的規(guī)定確定。

　　中華人民共和國(guó)締結(jié)或者參加的國(guó)際條約同中華人民共和國(guó)的民事法律有不同規(guī)定的，適用國(guó)際條約的規(guī)定，但中華人民共和國(guó)聲明保留的條款除外。

　　中華人民共和國(guó)法律和中華人民共和國(guó)締結(jié)或者參加的國(guó)際條約沒(méi)有規(guī)定的，可以適用國(guó)際慣例。

　　第一百四十三條 中華人民共和國(guó)公民定居國(guó)外的，他的民事行為能力可以適用定居國(guó)法律。

　　第一百四十四條 不動(dòng)產(chǎn)的所有權(quán)，適用不動(dòng)產(chǎn)所在地法律。

　　第一百四十五條 涉外合同的當(dāng)事人可以選擇處理合同爭(zhēng)議所適用的法律，法律另有規(guī)定的除外。

　　涉外合同的當(dāng)事人沒(méi)有選擇的，適用與合同有最密切聯(lián)系的國(guó)家的法律。

　　第一百四十六條 侵權(quán)行為的損害賠償，適用侵權(quán)行為地法律。當(dāng)事人雙方國(guó)籍相同或者在同一國(guó)家有住所的，也可以適用當(dāng)事人本國(guó)法律或者住所地法律。

　　中華人民共和國(guó)法律不認(rèn)為在中華人民共和國(guó)領(lǐng)域外發(fā)生的行為是侵權(quán)行為的，不作為侵權(quán)行為處理。

　　第一百四十七條 中華人民共和國(guó)公民和外國(guó)人結(jié)婚適用婚姻締結(jié)地法律，離婚適用受理案件的法院所在地法律。

　　第一百四十八條 扶養(yǎng)適用與被扶養(yǎng)人有最密切聯(lián)系的國(guó)家的法律。

　　第一百四十九條 遺產(chǎn)的法定繼承，動(dòng)產(chǎn)適用被繼承人死亡時(shí)住所地法律，不動(dòng)產(chǎn)適用不動(dòng)產(chǎn)所在地法律。

　　第一百五十條 依照本章規(guī)定適用外國(guó)法律或者國(guó)際慣例的，不得違背中華人民共和國(guó)的社會(huì)公共利益。

　　第九章 附 則

　　第一百五十一條 民族自治地方的人民代表大會(huì)可以根據(jù)本法規(guī)定的原則，結(jié)合當(dāng)?shù)孛褡宓奶攸c(diǎn)，制定變通的或者補(bǔ)充的單行條例或者規(guī)定。自治區(qū)人民代表大會(huì)制定的，依照法律規(guī)定報(bào)全國(guó)人民代表大會(huì)常務(wù)委員會(huì)批準(zhǔn)或者備案；自治州、自治縣人民代表大會(huì)制定的，報(bào)省、自治區(qū)人民代表大會(huì)常務(wù)委員會(huì)批準(zhǔn)。

　　第一百五十二條 本法生效以前，經(jīng)省、自治區(qū)、直轄市以上主管機(jī)關(guān)批準(zhǔn)開辦的全民所有制企業(yè)，已經(jīng)向工商行政管理機(jī)關(guān)登記的，可以不再辦理法人登記，即具有法人資格。

　　第一百五十三條 本法所稱的“不可抗力”，是指不能預(yù)見、不能避免并不能克服的客觀情況。

　　第一百五十四條 民法所稱的期間按照公歷年、月、日、小時(shí)計(jì)算。

　　規(guī)定按照小時(shí)計(jì)算期間的，從規(guī)定時(shí)開始計(jì)算。規(guī)定按照日、月、年計(jì)算期間的，開始的當(dāng)天不算入，從下一天開始計(jì)算。

　　期間的最后一天是星期日或者其他法定休假日的，以休假日的次日為期間的最后一天。

　　期間的最后一天的截止時(shí)間為二十四點(diǎn)。有業(yè)務(wù)時(shí)間的，到停止業(yè)務(wù)活動(dòng)的時(shí)間截止。

　　第一百五十五條 民法所稱的“以上”、“以下”、“以內(nèi)”、“屆滿”，包括本數(shù)；所稱的“不滿”、“以外”，不包括本數(shù)。

　　第一百五十六條 本法自一九八七年一月一日起施行。

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

　　Important Notice: (注意事項(xiàng))

　　英文本源自中華人民共和國(guó)務(wù)院法制局編譯, 中國(guó)法制出版社出版的《中華人民共和國(guó)涉外法規(guī)匯編》(1991年7月版)。當(dāng)發(fā)生歧意時(shí), 應(yīng)以法律法規(guī)頒布單位發(fā)布的中文原文為準(zhǔn)。

　　This English document is coming from "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7) which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China Legal System Publishing House. In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.

　　Whole Document (法規(guī)全文)

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

(Adopted at the Fourth Session of the Sixth National People's Congress, promulgated by Order No. 37 of the President of the People's Republic of China on April 12, 1986, and effective as of January 1, 1987)

　　Contents (目錄)

　　Chapter I Basic Principles

　　Chapter II Citizen (Natural Person)
　　Section 1 Capacity for Civil Rights and Capacity for Civil Conduct
　　Section 2 Guardianship
　　Section 3 Declarations of Missing Persons and Death
　　Section 4 Individual Businesses and Lease holding Farm Households
　　Section 5 Individual Partnership

　　Chapter III Legal Persons
　　Section 1 General Stipulations
　　Section 2 Enterprise as Legal Person
　　Section 3 Official Organ, Institution and Social Organization as Legal Persons
　　Section 4 Economic Association

　　Chapter IV Civil Juristic Acts and Agency
　　Section 1 Civil Juristic Acts
　　Section 2 Agency

　　Chapter V Civil Rights
　　Section 1 Property Ownership and Related Property Rights
　　Section 2 Creditors' Rights
　　Section 3 Intellectual Property Rights
　　Section 4 Personal Rights

　　Chapter VI Civil Liability
　　Section 1 General Stipulations
　　Section 2 Civil Liability for Breach of Contract
　　Section 3 Civil Liability for Infringement of Rights
　　Section 4 Methods of Bearing Civil Liability

　　Chapter VII Limitation of Action

　　Chapter VIII Application of Law in Civil Relations with Foreigners

　　Chapter IX Supplementary Provisions

　　Chapter I Basic Principles

　　Article 1

　　This Law is formulated in accordance with the Constitution and the actual situation in our country, drawing upon our practical experience in civil activities, for the purpose of protecting the lawful civil rights and interests of citizens and legal persons and correctly adjusting civil relations, so as to meet the needs of the developing socialist modernization.

　　Article 2

　　The Civil Law of the People's Republic of China shall adjust property relationships and personal relationships between civil subjects with equal status, that is, between citizens, between legal persons and between citizens and legal persons.

　　Article 3

　　Parties to a civil activity shall have equal status.

　　Article 4

　　In civil activities, the principles of voluntariness, fairness, making compensation for equal value, honesty and credibility shall be observed.

　　Article 5

　　The lawful civil rights and interests of citizens and legal persons shall be protected by law; no organization or individual may infringe upon them.

　　Article 6

　　Civil activities must be in compliance with the law; where there are no relevant provisions in the law, they shall be in compliance with state policies.

　　Article 7

　　Civil activities shall have respect for social ethics and shall not harm the public interest, undermine state economic plans or disrupt social economic order.

　　Article 8

　　The law of the People's Republic of China shall apply to civil activities within the People's Republic of China, except as otherwise stipulated by law.

　　The stipulations of this Law as regards citizens shall apply to foreigners and stateless persons within the People's Republic of China, except as otherwise stipulated by law.

　　Chapter II Citizen (Natural Person)

　　Section 1 Capacity for Civil Rights and Capacity for Civil Conduct.

　　Article 9

　　A citizen shall have the capacity for civil rights from birth to death and shall enjoy civil rights and assume civil obligations in accordance with the law.

　　Article 10

　　All citizens are equal as regards their capacity for civil rights.

　　Article 11

　　A citizen aged 18 or over shall be an adult. He shall have full capacity for civil conduct, may independently engage in civil activities and shall be called a person with full capacity for civil conduct.

　　A citizen who has reached the age of 16 but not the age of 18 and whose main source of income is his own labour shall be regarded as a person with full capacity for civil conduct.

　　Article 12

　　A minor aged 10 or over shall be a person with limited capacity for civil conduct and may engage in civil activities appropriate to his age and intellect; in other civil activities, he shall be represented by his agent ad litem or participate with the consent of his agent ad litem.

　　A minor under the age of 10 shall be a person having no capacity for civil conduct and shall be represented in civil activities by his agent ad litem.

　　Article 13

　　A mentally ill person who is unable to account for his own conduct shall be a person having no capacity for civil conduct and shall be represented in civil activities by his agent ad litem.

　　A mentally ill person who is unable to fully account for his own conduct shall be a person with limited capacity for civil conduct and may engage in civil activities appropriate to his mental health; in other civil activities, he shall be represented by his agent ad litem or participate with the consent of his agent ad litem.

　　Article 14

　　The guardian of a person without or with limited capacity for civil conduct shall be his agent ad litem.

　　Article 15

　　The domicile of a citizen shall be the place where his residence is registered; if his habitual residence is not the same as his domicile, his habitual residence shall be regarded as his domicile.

　　Section 2 Guardianship

　　Article 16

　　The parents of a minor shall be his guardians. If the parents of a minor are dead or lack the competence to be his

　　guardian, a person from the following categories who has the competence to be a guardian shall act as his guardian:

　　(1) paternal or maternal grandparent;

　　(2) elder brother or sister; or

　　(3) any other closely connected relative or friend willing to bear the responsibility of guardianship and having approval from the units of the minor's parents or from the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of the minor's residence. In case of a dispute over guardianship, the units of the minor's parents or the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his residence shall appoint a guardian from among the minor's near relatives. If disagreement over the appointment leads to a lawsuit, the people's court shall make a ruling. If none of the persons listed in the first two paragraphs of this article is available to be the guardian, the units of the minor's parents, the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of the minor's residence or the civil affairs department shall act as his guardian.

　　Article 17

　　A person from the following categories shall act as guardian for a mentally ill person without or with limited capacity for civil conduct:

　　(1) spouse;

　　(2) parent;

　　(3) adult child;

　　(4) any other near relative;

　　(5) any other closely connected relative or friend willing to bear the responsibility of guardianship and having approval from the unit to which the mentally ill person belongs or from the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his residence. In case of a dispute over guardianship, the unit to which the mentally ill person belongs or the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his residence shall appoint a guardian from among his near relatives. If disagreement over the appointment leads to a lawsuit, the people's court shall make a ruling.

　　If none of the persons listed in the first paragraph of this article is available to be the guardian, the unit to which the mentally ill person belongs, the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his residence or the civil affairs department shall act as his guardian.

　　Article 18

　　A guardian shall fulfil his duty of guardianship and protect the person, property and other lawful rights and interests of his ward. A guardian shall not handle the property of his ward unless it is in the ward's interests.

　　A guardian's rights to fulfil his guardianship in accordance with the law shall be protected by law. If a guardian does not fulfil his duties as guardian or infringes upon the lawful rights and interests of his ward, he shall be held responsible; if a guardian causes any property loss for his ward, he shall compensate for such loss. The people's court may disqualify a guardian based on the application of a concerned party or unit.

　　Article 19

　　A person who shares interests with a mental patient may apply to a people's court for a declaration that the mental patient is a person without or with limited capacity for civil conduct.

　　With the recovery of the health of a person who has been declared by a people's court to be without or with limited capacity for civil conduct, and upon his own application or that of an interested person, the people's court may declare him to be a person with limited or full capacity for civil conduct.

　　Section 3 Declarations of Missing Persons and Death

　　Article 20

　　If a citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for two years, an interested person may apply to a people's court for a declaration of the citizen as missing.

　　If a person's whereabouts become unknown during a war, the calculation of the time period in which his whereabouts are unknown shall begin on the final day of the war.

　　Article 21

　　A missing person's property shall be placed in the custody of his spouse, parents, adult children or other closely connected relatives or friends.

　　In case of a dispute over custody, if the persons stipulated above are unavailable or are incapable of taking such custody, the property shall be placed in the custody of a person appointed by the people's court. Any taxes, debts and other unpaid expenses owed by a missing person shall defrayed by the custodian out of the missing person's property.

　　Article 22

　　In the event that a person who has been declared missing reappears or his whereabouts are ascertained, the people's court shall, upon his own application or that of an interested person, revoke the declaration of his missing-person status.

　　Article 23

　　Under either of the following circumstances, an interested person may apply to the people's court for a declaration of a citizen's death:

　　(1) if the citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for four years or

　　(2) if the citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for two years after the date of an accident in which he was involved.

　　If a person's whereabouts become unknown during a war, the calculation of the time period in which his whereabouts are unknown shall begin on the final day of the war.

　　Article 24

　　In the event that a person who has been declared dead reappears or it is ascertained that he is alive, the people's court shall, upon his own application or that of an interested person, revoke the declaration of his death.

　　Any civil juristic acts performed by a person with capacity for civil conduct during the period in which he has been declared dead shall be valid.

　　Article 25

　　A person shall have the right to request the return of his property, if the declaration of his death has been revoked. Any citizen or organization that has obtained such property in accordance with the Law of Succession shall return the original items or make appropriate compensation if the original items no longer exist.

　　Section 4 Individual Businesses and Lease holding Farm Households

　　Article 26

　　"Individual businesses" refers to business run by individual citizens who have been lawfully registered and approved to engage in industrial or commercial operation within the sphere permitted by law. An individual business may adopt a shop name.

　　Article 27

　　"Lease holding farm households" refers to members of a rural collective economic organization who engage in commodity production under a contract and within the spheres permitted by law.

　　Article 28

　　The legitimate rights and interests of individual businesses and lease holding farm households shall be protected by law.

　　Article 29

　　The debts of an individual business or a lease holding farm household shall be secured with the individual's property if the business is operated by an individual and with the family's property if the business is operated by a family.

　　Section 5 Individual Partnership

　　Article 30

　　"Individual partnership" refers to two or more citizens associated in a business and working together, with each providing funds, material objects, techniques and so on according to an agreement.

　　Article 31

　　Partners shall make a written agreement covering the funds each is to provide, the distribution of profits, the responsibility for debts, the entering into and withdrawal from partnership, the ending of partnership and other such matters.

　　Article 32

　　The property provided by the partners shall be under their unified management and use. The property accumulated in a partnership operation shall belong to all the partners.

　　Article 33

　　An individual partnership may adopt a shop name; it shall be approved and registered in accordance with the law and conduct business operations within the range as approved and registered.

　　Article 34

　　The operational activities of an individual partnership shall be decided jointly by the partners, who each shall have the right to carry out and supervise those activities. The partners may elect a responsible person.

　　All partners shall bear civil liability for the operational activities of the responsible person and other personnel.

　　Article 35

　　A partnership's debts shall be secured with the partners' property in proportion to their respective contributions to the investment or according to the agreement made. Partners shall undertake joint liability for their partnership's debts, except as otherwise stipulated by law. Any partner who overpays his share of the partnership's debts shall have the right to claim compensation from the other partners.

　　Chapter III Legal Persons

　　Section 1 General Stipulations

　　Article 36

　　A legal person shall be an organization that has capacity for civil rights and capacity for civil conduct and independently enjoys civil rights and assumes civil obligations in accordance with the law.

　　A legal person's capacity for civil rights and capacity for civil conduct shall begin when the legal person is established and shall end when the legal person terminates.

　　Article 37

　　A legal person shall have the following qualifications:

　　(1) establishment in accordance with the law;

　　(2) possession of the necessary property or funds;

　　(3) possession of its own name, organization and premises; and

　　(4) ability to independently bear civil liability.

　　Article 38

　　In accordance with the law or the articles of association of the legal person, the responsible person who acts on behalf of the legal person in exercising its functions and powers shall be its legal representative.

　　Article 39

　　A legal person's domicile shall be the place where its main administrative office is located.

　　Article 40

　　When a legal person terminates, it shall go into liquidation in accordance with the law and discontinue all other activities.

　　Section 2 Enterprise as Legal Person

　　Article 41

　　An enterprise owned by the whole people or under collective ownership shall be qualified as a legal person when it has sufficient funds as stipulated by the state; has articles of association, an organization and premises; has the ability to independently bear civil liability; and has been approved and registered by the competent authority. A Chinese-foreign equity joint venture, Chinese-foreign contractual joint venture or foreign-capital enterprise established within the People's Republic of China shall be qualified as a legal person in China if it has the qualifications of a legal person and has been approved and registered by the administrative agency for industry and commerce in according with the law.

　　Article 42

　　An enterprise as legal person shall conduct operations within the range approved and registered.

　　Article 43

　　An enterprise as legal person shall bear civil liability for the operational activities of its legal representatives and other personnel.

　　Article 44

　　If an enterprise as legal person is divided or merged or undergoes any other important change, it shall register the change with the registration authority and publicly announce it.

　　When an enterprise as legal person is divided or merged, its rights and obligations shall be enjoyed and assumed by the new legal person that results from the change.

　　Article 45

　　An enterprise as legal person shall terminate for any of the following reasons:

　　(1) if it is dissolved by law;

　　(2) if it is disbanded;

　　(3) if it is declared bankrupt in accordance with the law; or

　　(4) for other reasons.

　　Article 46

　　When an enterprise as legal person terminates, it shall cancel its registration with the registration authority and publicly announce the termination.

　　Article 47

　　When an enterprise as legal person is disbanded, it shall establish a liquidation organization and go into liquidation. When an enterprise as legal person is dissolved or is declared bankrupt, the competent authority or a people's court shall organize the organs and personnel concerned to establish a liquidation organization to liquidate the enterprise.

　　Article 48

　　An enterprise owned by the whole people, as legal person, shall bear civil liability with the property that the state authorizes it to manage. An enterprise under collective ownership, as legal person, shall bear civil liability with the property it owns. A Chinese-foreign equity joint venture, Chinese-foreign contractual joint venture or foreign-capital

　　enterprise as legal person shall bear civil liability with the property it owns, except as stipulated otherwise by law.

　　Article 49

　　Under any of the following circumstances, an enterprise as legal person shall bear liability, its legal representative may additionally be given administrative sanctions and fined and, if the offence constitutes a crime, criminal responsibility shall be investigated in accordance with the law:

　　(1) conducting illegal operations beyond the range approved and registered by the registration authority;

　　(2) concealing facts from the registration and tax authorities and practising fraud;

　　(3) secretly withdrawing funds or hiding property to evade repayment of debts;

　　(4) disposing of property without authorization after the enterprise is dissolved, disbanded or declared bankrupt;

　　(5) failing to apply for registration and make a public announcement promptly when the enterprise undergoes a change or terminates, thus causing interested persons to suffer heavy losses;

　　(6) engaging in other activities prohibited by law, damaging the interests of the state or the public interest.

　　Section 3 Official Organ, Institution and Social Organization as Legal Person

　　Article 50

　　An independently funded official organ shall be qualified as a legal person on the day it is established.

　　If according to law an institution or social organization having the qualifications of a legal person needs not go through the procedures for registering as a legal person, it shall be qualified as a legal person on the day it is established; if according to law it does need to go through the registration procedures, it shall be qualified as a legal person after being approved and registered.

　　Section 4 Economic Association

　　Article 51

　　If a new economic entity is formed by enterprises or an enterprise and an institution that engage in economic association and it independently bears civil liability and has the qualifications of a legal person, the new entity shall be qualified as a legal person after being approved and registered by the competent authority.

　　Article 52

　　If the enterprises or an enterprise and an institution that engage in economic association conduct joint operation but do not have the qualifications of a legal person, each party to the association shall, in proportion to its respective contribution to the investment or according to the agreement made, bear civil liability with the property each party owns or manages. If joint liability is specified by law or by agreement, the parties shall assume joint liability.

　　Article 53

　　If the contract for economic association of enterprises or of an enterprise and an institution specifies that each party shall conduct operations independently, it shall stipulate the rights and obligations of each party, and each party shall bear civil liability separately.

　　Chapter IV Civil Juristic Acts and Agency

　　Section 1 Civil Juristic Acts

　　Article 54

　　A civil juristic act shall be the lawful act of a citizen or legal person to establish, change or terminate civil rights and obligations.

　　Article 55

　　A civil juristic act shall meet the following requirements:

　　(1) the actor has relevant capacity for civil conduct;

　　(2) the intention expressed is genuine; and

　　(3) the act does not violate the law or the public interest.

　　Article 56

　　A civil juristic act may be in written, oral or other form. If the law stipulates that a particular form be adopted, such stipulation shall beobserved.

　　Article 57

　　A civil juristic act shall be legally binding once it is instituted. The actor shall not alter or rescind his act except in accordance with the law or with the other party's consent.

　　Article 58

　　Civil acts in the following categories shall be null and void:

　　(1) those performed by a person without capacity for civil conduct;

　　(2) those that according to law may not be independently performed by a person with limited capacity for civil conduct;

　　(3) those performed by a person against his true intentions as a result of cheating, coercion or exploitation of his unfavourable position by the other party;

　　(4) those that performed through malicious collusion are detrimental to the interest of the state, a collective or a third party;

　　(5) those that violate the law or the public interest;

　　(6) economic contracts that violate the state's mandatory plans; and

　　(7) those that performed under the guise of legitimate acts conceal illegitimate purposes. Civil acts that are null and void shall not be legally binding from the very beginning.

　　Article 59

　　A party shall have the right to request a people's court or an arbitration agency to alter or rescind the following civil acts:

　　(1) those performed by an actor who seriously misunderstood the contents of the acts;

　　(2) those that are obviously unfair. Rescinded civil acts shall be null and void from the very beginning.

　　Article 60

　　If part of a civil act is null and void, it shall not affect the validity of other parts.

　　Article 61

　　After a civil act has been determined to be null and void or has been rescinded, the party who acquired property as a result of the act shall return it to the party who suffered a loss. The erring party shall compensate the other party for the losses it suffered as a result of the act; if both sides are in error, they shall each bear their proper share of the responsibility.

　　If the two sides have conspired maliciously and performed a civil act that is detrimental to the interests of the state, a collective or a third party, the property that they thus obtained shall be recovered and turned over to the state or the collective, or returned to the third party.

　　Article 62

　　A civil juristic act may have conditions attached to it. Conditional civil juristic acts shall take effect when the relevant conditions are met.

　　Section 2 Agency

　　Article 63

　　Citizens and legal persons may perform civil juristic acts through agents An agent shall perform civil juristic acts in the principal's name within the scope of the power of agency. The principal shall bear civil liability for the agent's acts of agency. Civil juristic acts that should be performed by the principal himself, pursuant to legal provisions or the agreement between the two parties, shall not be entrusted to an agent.

　　Article 64

　　Agency shall include entrusted agency, statutory agency and appointed agency. An entrusted agent shall exercise the power of agency as entrusted by the principal; a statutory agent shall exercise the power of agency as prescribed by law; and an appointed agent shall exercise the power of agency as designated by a people's court or the appointing unit.

　　Article 65

　　A civil juristic act may be entrusted to an agent in writing or orally. If legal provisions require the entrustment to be written, it shall be effected in writing. Where the entrustment of agency is in writing, the power of attorney shall clearly state the agent's name, the entrusted tasks and the scope and duration of the power of agency, and it shall be signed or sealed by the principal.

　　If the power of attorney is not clear as to the authority conferred, the principal shall bear civil liability towards the third party, and the agent shall be held jointly liable.

　　Article 66

　　The principal shall bear civil liability for an act performed by an actor with no power of agency, beyond the scope of his power of agency or after his power of agency has expired, only if he recognizes the act retroactively. If the act is not so recognized, the performer shall bear civil liability for it. If a principal is aware that a civil act is being executed in his name but fails to repudiate it, his consent shall be deemed to have been given.

　　An agent shall bear civil liability if he fails to perform his duties and thus causes damage to the principal.

　　If an agent and a third party in collusion harm the principal's interests, the agent and the third party shall be held jointly liable.

　　If a third party is aware that an actor has no power of agency, is overstepping his power of agency, or his power of agency has expired and yet joins him in a civil act and thus brings damage to other people, the third party and the actor shall be held jointly liable.

　　Article 67

　　If an agent is aware that the matters entrusted are illegal but still carries them out, or if a principal is aware that his agent's acts are illegal but fails to object to them, the principal and the agent shall be held jointly liable.

　　Article 68

　　If in the principal's interests an entrusted agent needs to transfer the agency to another person, he shall first obtain the principal's consent.

　　If the principal's consent is not obtained in advance, the matter shall be reported to him promptly after the transfer, and if the principal objects, the agent shall bear civil liability for the acts of the transferee; however, an entrusted agency transferred in emergency circumstances in order to safeguard the principal's interests shall be excepted.

　　Article 69

　　An entrusted agency shall end under any of the following circumstances:

　　(1) when the period of agency expires or when the tasks entrusted are completed;

　　(2) when the principal rescinds the entrustment or the agent declines the entrustment;

　　(3) when the agent dies;

　　(4) when the principal loses his capacity for civil conduct; or

　　(5) when the principal or the agent ceases to be a legal person.

　　Article 70

　　A statutory or appointed agency shall end under any of the following circumstances:

　　(1) when the principal gains or recovers capacity for civil conduct;

　　(2) when the principal or the agent dies;

　　(3) when the agent loses capacity for civil conduct;

　　(4) when the people's court or the unit that appointed the agent rescinds the appointment; or

　　(5) when the guardian relationship between the principal and the agent ends for other reasons.

　　Chapter V Civil Rights

　　Section 1 Property Ownership and Related Property Rights

　　Article 71

　　"Property ownership" means the owner's rights to lawfully possess, utilize, profit from and dispose of his property.

　　Article 72

　　Property ownership shall not be obtained in violation of the law. Unless the law stipulates otherwise or the parties concerned have agreed on other arrangements, the ownership of property obtained by contract or by other lawful means shall be transferred simultaneously with the property itself.

　　Article 73

　　State property shall be owned by the whole people. State property is sacred and inviolable, and no organization or individual shall be allowed to seize, encroach upon, privately divide, retain or destroy it.

　　Article 74

　　Property of collective organizations of the working masses shall be owned collectively by the working masses. This shall include:

　　(1) land, forests, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land, beaches and other areas that are stipulated by law to be under collective ownership;

　　(2) property of collective economic organizations;

　　(3) collectively owned buildings, reservoirs, farm irrigation facilities and educational, scientific, cultural, health, sports and other facilities; and (4) other property that is collectively owned.

　　Collectively owned land shall be owned collectively by the village peasants in accordance with the law and shall be worked and managed by village agricultural production cooperatives, other collective agricultural economic organizations or villages' committees. Land already under the ownership of the township (town) peasants' collective economic organizations may be collectively owned by the peasants of the township (town). Collectively owned property shall be protected by law, and no organization or individual may seize, encroach upon, privately divide, destroy or illegally seal up, distrain, freeze or confiscate it.

　　Article 75

　　A citizen's personal property shall include his lawfully earned income, housing, savings, articles for daily use, objects d'art, books, reference materials, trees, livestock, as well as means of production the law permits a citizen to possess and other lawful property. A citizen's lawful property shall be protected by law, and no organizatio,n or individual may appropriate, encroach upon, destroy or illegally seal up, distrain, freeze or confiscate it.

　　Article 76

　　Citizens shall have the right of inheritance under the law.

　　Article 77

　　The lawful property of social organizations, including religious organizations, shall be protected by law.

　　Article 78

　　Property may be owned jointly by two or more citizens or legal persons. There shall be two kinds of joint ownership, namely co-ownership by shares and common ownership. Each of the co-owners by shares shall enjoy the rights and assume the obligations respecting the joint property in proportion to his share. Each of the common owners shall enjoy the rights and assume the obligations respecting the joint property. Each co-owner by shares shall have the right to withdraw his own share of the joint property or transfer its ownership. However, when he offers to sell his share, the other co-owners shall have a right of pre-emption if all other conditions are equal.

　　Article 79

　　If the owner of a buried or concealed object is unknown, the object shall belong to the state. The unit that receives the object shall commend or give a material reward to the unit or individual that turns in the object.

　　Lost-and-found objects, flotsam and stray animals shall be returned to their rightful owners, and any costs thus incurred shall be reimbursed by the owners.

　　Article 80

　　State-owned land may be used according to law by units under ownership by the whole people; it may also be lawfully assigned for use by units under collective ownership. The state shall protect the usufruct of the land, and the usufructuary shall be obligated to manage, protect and properly use the land.

　　The right of citizens and collectives to contract for management of land under collective ownership or of state-owned land under collective use shall be protected by law. The rights and obligations of the two contracting parties shall be stipulated in the contract signed in accordance with the law.

　　Land may not be sold, leased, mortgaged or illegally transferred by any other means.

　　Article 81

　　State-owned forests, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land, beaches, water surfaces and other natural resources may be used according to law by units under ownership by the whole people; or they may also be lawfully assigned for use by units under collective ownership. The state shall protect the usufruct of those resources, and the usufructuary shall be

　　obliged to manage, protect and properly use them. State-owned mineral resources may be mined according to law by units under ownership by the whole people and units under collective ownership; citizens may also lawfully mine such resources. The state shall protect lawful mining rights.

　　The right of citizens and collectives to lawfully contract for the management of forests, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land, beaches and water surfaces that are owned by collectives or owned by the state but used by collectives shall be protected by law. The rights and obligations of the two contracting parties shall be stipulated in the contract in accordance with the law.

　　State-owned mineral resources and waters as well as forest land, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land and beaches owned by the state and those that are lawfully owned by collectives may not be sold, leased, mortgaged or illegally transferred by any other means.

　　Article 82

　　Enterprises under ownership by the whole people shall lawfully enjoy the rights of management over property that the state has authorized them to manage and operate, and the rights shall be protected by law.

　　Article 83

　　In the spirit of helping production, making things convenient for people's lives, enhancing unity and mutual assistance, and being fair and reasonable, neighbouring users of real estate shall maintain proper neighbourly relations over such matters as water supply, drainage, passageway, ventilation and lighting. Anyone who causes obstruction or damage to his neighbour, shall stop the infringement, eliminate the obstruction and compensate for the damage.

　　Section 2 Creditors' Rights

　　Article 84

　　A debt represents a special relationship of rights and obligations established between the parties concerned, either according to the agreed terms of a contract or legal provisions. The party entitled to the rights shall be the creditor, and the party assuming the obligations shall be the debtor.

　　The creditor shall have the right to demand that the debtor fulfil his obligations as specified by the contract or according to legal provisions.

　　Article 85

　　A contract shall be an agreement whereby the parties establish, change or terminate their civil relationship. Lawfully established contracts shall be protected by law.

　　Article 86

　　When there are two or more creditors to a deal, each creditor shall be entitled to rights in proportion to his proper share of the credit. When there are two or more debtors to a deal, each debtor shall assume obligations in proportion to his share of the debt.

　　Article 87

　　When there are two or more creditors or debtors to a deal, each of the joint creditors shall be entitled to demand that the debtor fulfil his obligations, in accordance with legal provisions or the agreement between the parties; each of the joint debtors shall be obliged to perform the entire debt, and the debtor who performs the entire debt shall be entitled to ask the other joint debtors to reimburse him for their shares of the debt.

　　Article 88

　　The parties to a contract shall fully fulfil their obligations pursuant to the terms of the contract.

　　If a contract contains ambiguous terms regarding quality, time limit for performance, place of performance, or price, and the intended meaning cannot be determined from the context of relevant terms in the contract, and if the parties cannot reach an agreement through consultation, the provisions below shall apply:

　　(1) If quality requirements are unclear, state quality standards shall apply; if there are no state quality standards, generally held standards shall apply.

　　(2) If the time limit for performance is unclear, the debtor may at his convenience fulfill his obligations towards the creditor; the creditor may also demand at any time that the debtor perform his obligations, but sufficient notice shall be given to the debtor.

　　(3) If the place of performance is unclear, and the payment is money, the performance shall be effected at the seat or place of residence of the party receiving the payment; if the payment is other than money, the performance shall be effected at the seat or place of residence of the party fulfilling the obligations.

　　(4) If the price agreed by the parties is unclear, the state-fixed price shall apply. If there is no state-fixed price, the price shall be based on market price or the price of a similar article or remuneration for a similar service.

　　If the contract does not contain an agreed term regarding rights to patent application, any party who has completed an invention-creation shall have the right to apply for a patent.

　　If the contract does not contain an agreed term regarding rights to patent application, and technological research achievements, the parties shall all have the right to use such achievements.

　　Article 89

　　In accordance with legal provisions the agreement between the parties on the performance of a debt may be guaranteed using the methods below:

　　(1) A guarantor may guarantee to the creditor that the debtor shall perform his debt. If the debtor defaults, the guarantor shall perform the debt or bear joint liability according to agreement. After performing the debt, the guarantor shall have the right to claim repayment from the debtor.

　　(2) The debtor or a third party may offer a specific property as a pledge. If the debtor defaults, the creditors shall be entitled to keep the pledge to offset the debt or have priority in satisfying his claim out of the proceeds from the sale of the pledge pursuant to relevant legal provisions.

　　(3) Within the limits of relevant legal provisions, a party may leave a deposit with the other party. After the debtor has discharged his debt, the deposit shall either be retained as partial payment of the debt or be returned. If the party who leaves the deposit defaults, he shall not be entitled to demand the return of the deposit; if the party who accepts the

　　deposit defaults, he shall repay the deposit in double.

　　(4) If a party has possession of the other party's property according to contract and the other party violates the contract by failing to pay a required sum of money within the specified time limit, the possessor shall have a lien on the property and may keep the retained property to offset the debt or have priority in satisfying his claim out of the proceeds from

　　the sale of the property pursuant to relevant legal provisions.

　　Article 90

　　Legitimate loan relationships shall be protected by law.

　　Article 91

　　If a party to a contract transfers all or part of his contractual rights or obligations to a third party, he shall obtain the other party's consent and may not seek profits therefrom. Contracts which according to legal provisions are subject to state approval, such as transfers, must be approved by the authority that originally approved the contract, unless the law or the original contract stipulates otherwise.

　　Article 92

　　If profits are acquired improperly and without a lawful basis, resulting in another person's loss, the illegal profits shall be returned to the person who suffered the loss.

　　Article 93

　　If a person acts as manager or provides services in order to protect another person's interests when he is not legally or contractually obligated to do so, he shall be entitled to claim from the beneficiary the expenses necessary for such assistance.

　　Section 3 Intellectual Property Rights

　　Article 94

　　Citizens and legal persons shall enjoy rights of authorship (copyrights) and shall be entitled to sign their names as authors, issue and publish their works and obtain remuneration in accordance with the law.

　　Article 95

　　The patent rights lawfully obtained by citizens and legal persons shall be protected by law.

　　Article 96

　　The rights to exclusive use of trademarks obtained by legal persons, individual businesses and individual partnerships shall be protected by law.

　　Article 97

　　Citizens who make discoveries shall be entitled to the rights of discovery. A discoverer shall have the right to apply for and receive certificates of discovery, bonuses or other awards.

　　Citizens who make inventions or other achievements in scientific and technological research shall have the right to apply for and receive certificates of honour, bonuses or other awards.

　　Section 4 Personal Rights

　　Article 98

　　Citizens shall enjoy the rights of life and health.

　　Article 99

　　Citizens shall enjoy the right of personal name and shall be entitled to determine, use or change their personal names in accordance with relevant provisions. Interference with, usurpation of and false representation of personal names shall be prohibited. Legal persons, individual businesses and individual partnerships shall enjoy the right of name. Enterprises as

　　legal persons, individual businesses and individual partnerships shall have the right to use and lawfully assign their own names.

　　Article 100

　　Citizens shall enjoy the right of portrait. The use of a citizen's portrait for profit without his consent shall be prohibited.

　　Article 101

　　Citizens and legal persons shall enjoy the right of reputation. The personality of citizens shall be protected by law, and the use of insults, libel or other means to damage the reputation of citizens or legal persons shall be prohibited.

　　Article 102

　　Citizens and legal persons shall enjoy the right of honour. It shall be prohibited to unlawfully divest citizens and legal persons of their honorary titles.

　　Article 103

　　Citizens shall enjoy the right of marriage by choice. Mercenary marriages, marriages upon arbitrary decision by any third party and any other acts of interference in the freedom of marriage shall be prohibited.

　　Article 104

　　Marriage, the family, old people, mothers and children shall be protected by law. The lawful rights and interests of the handicapped shall be protected by law.

　　Article 105

　　Women shall enjoy equal civil rights with men.

　　Chapter VI Civil Liability

　　Section 1 General Stipulations

　　Article 106

　　Citizens and legal persons who breach a contract or fail to fulfil other obligations shall bear civil liability.

　　Citizens and legal persons who through their fault encroach upon state or collective property or the property or person of other people shall bear civil liability. Civil liability shall still be borne even in the absence of fault, if the law so stipulates.

　　Article 107

　　Civil liability shall not be borne for failure to perform a contract or damage to a third party if it is caused by force majeure, except as otherwise provided by law.

　　Article 108

　　Debts shall be cleared. If a debtor is unable to repay his debt immediately, he may repay by instalments with the consent of the creditor or a ruling by a people's court. If a debtor is capable of repaying his debt but refuses to do so, repayment shall be compelled by the decision of a people's court.

　　Article 109

　　If a person suffers damages from preventing or stopping encroachment on state or collective property, or the property or person of a third party, the infringer shall bear responsibility for compensation, and the beneficiary may also give appropriate compensation.

　　Article 110

　　Citizens or legal persons who bear civil liability shall also be held for administrative responsibility if necessary. If the acts committed by citizens and legal persons constitute crimes, criminal responsibility of their legal representatives shall be investigated in accordance with the law.

　　Section 2 Civil Liability for Breach of Contract

　　Article 111

　　If a party fails to fulfil its contractual obligations or violates the term of a contract while fulfilling the obligations, the other party shall have the right to demand fulfillment or the taking of remedial measures and claim compensation for its losses.

　　Article 112

　　The party that breaches a contract shall be liable for compensation equal to the losses consequently suffered by the other party.

　　The parties may specify in a contract that if one party breaches the contract it shall pay the other party a certain amount of breach of contract damages; they may also specify in the contract the method of assessing the compensation for any losses resulting from a breach of contract.

　　Article 113

　　If both parties breach the contract, each party shall bear its respective civil liability.

　　Article 114

　　If one party is suffering losses owing to the other party's breach of contract, it shall take prompt measures to prevent the losses from increasing; if it does not promptly do so, it shall not have the right to claim compensation for the additional losses.

　　Article 115

　　A party's right to claim compensation for losses shall not be affected by the alteration or termination of a contract.

　　Article 116

　　If a party fails to fulfil its contractual obligations on account of a higher authority, it shall first compensate for the losses of the other party or take other remedial measures as contractually agreed and then the higher authority shall be responsible for settling the losses it sustained.

　　Section 3 Civil Liability for Infringement of Rights

　　Article 117

　　Anyone who encroaches on the property of the state, a collective or another person shall return the property; failing that, he shall reimburse its estimated price. Anyone who damages the property of the state, a collective or another person shall restore the property to its original condition or reimburse its estimated price. If the victim suffers other great losses therefrom, the infringer shall compensate for those losses as well.

　　Article 118

　　If the rights of authorship (copyrights), patent rights, rights to exclusive use of trademarks, rights of discovery, rights of invention or rights for scientific and technological research achievements of citizens or legal persons are infringed upon by such means as plagiarism, alteration or imitation, they shall have the right to demand that the infringement be stopped, its ill effects be eliminated and the damages be compensated for.

　　Article 119

　　Anyone who infringes upon a citizen's person and causes him physical injury shall pay his medical expenses and his loss in income due to missed working time and shall pay him living subsidies if he is disabled; if the victim dies, the infringe shall also pay the funeral expenses, the necessary living expenses of the deceased's dependents and other such expenses.

　　Article 120

　　If a citizen's right of personal name, portrait, reputation or honour is infringed upon, he shall have the right to demand that the infringement be stopped, his reputation be rehabilitated, the ill effects be eliminated and an apology be made; he may also demand compensation for losses.

　　The above paragraph shall also apply to infringements upon a legal person's right of name, reputation or honour.

　　Article 121

　　If a state organ or its personnel, while executing its duties, encroaches upon the lawful rights and interests of a citizen or legal person and causes damage, it shall bear civil liability.

　　Article 122

　　If a substandard product causes property damage or physical injury to others, the manufacturer or seller shall bear civil liability according to law. If the transporter or storekeeper is responsible for the matter, the manufacturer or seller shall have the right to demand compensation for its losses.

　　Article 123

　　If any person causes damage to other people by engaging in operations that are greatly hazardous to the surroundings, such as operations conducted high aboveground, or those involving high pressure, high voltage, combustibles, explosives, highly toxic or radioactive substances or high-speed means of transport, he shall bear civil liability; however, if it can be proven that the damage was deliberately caused by the victim, he shall not bear civil liability.

　　Article 124

　　Any person who pollutes the environment and causes damage to others in violation of state provisions for environmental protection and the prevention of pollution shall bear civil liability in accordance with the law.

　　Article 125

　　Any constructor who engages in excavation, repairs or installation of underground facilities in a public place, on a roadside or in a passageway without setting up clear signs and adopting safety measures and thereby causes damage to others shall bear civil liability.

　　Article 126

　　If a building or any other installation or an object placed or hung on a structure collapses, detaches or drops down and causes damage to others, its owner or manager shall bear civil liability, unless he can prove himself not at fault.

　　Article 127

　　If a domesticated animal causes harm to any person, its keeper or manager shall bear civil liability. If the harm occurs through the fault of the victim, the keeper or manager shall not bear civil liability; if the harm occurs through the fault of a third party, the third party shall bear civil liability.

　　Article 128

　　A person who causes harm in exercising justifiable defence shall not bear civil liability. If justifiable defence exceeds the limits of necessity and undue harm is caused, an appropriate amount of civil liability shall be borne.

　　Article 129

　　If harm occurs through emergency actions taken to avoid danger, the person who gave rise to the danger shall bear civil liability. If the danger arose from natural causes, the person who took the emergency actions may either be exempt from civil liability or bear civil liability to an appropriate extent. If the emergency measures taken are improper or exceed

　　the limits of necessity and undue harm is caused, the person who took the emergency action shall bear civil liability to an appropriate extent.

　　Article 130

　　If two or more persons jointly infringe upon another person's rights and cause him damage, they shall bear joint liability.

　　Article 131

　　If a victim is also at fault for causing the damage, the civil liability of the infringe may be reduced.

　　Article 132

　　If none of the parties is at fault in causing damage, they may share civil liability according to the actual circumstances.

　　Article 133

　　If a person without or with limited capacity for civil conduct causes damage to others, his guardian shall bear civil liability. If the guardian has done his duty of guardianship, his civil liability may be appropriately reduced.

　　If a person who has property but is without or with limited capacity for civil conduct causes damage to others, the expenses of compensation shall be paid from his property. Shortfalls in such expenses shall be appropriately compensated for by the guardian unless the guardian is a unit.

　　Section 4 Methods of Bearing Civil Liability

　　Article 134

　　The main methods of bearing civil liability shall be:

　　(1) cessation of infringements;

　　(2) removal of obstacles;

　　(3) elimination of dangers;

　　(4) return of property;

　　(5) restoration of original condition;

　　(6) repair, reworking or replacement;

　　(7) compensation for losses;

　　(8) payment of breach of contract damages;

　　(9) elimination of ill effects and rehabilitation of reputation; and

　　(10) extension of apology.

　　The above methods of bearing civil liability may be applied exclusively or concurrently. When hearing civil cases, a people's court, in addition to applying the above stipulations, may serve admonitions, order the offender to sign a pledge of repentance, and confiscate the property used in carrying out illegal activities and the illegal income obtained therefrom.

　　It may also impose fines or detentions as stipulated by law.

　　Chapter VII Limitation of Action

　　Article 135

　　Except as otherwise stipulated by law, the limitation of action regarding applications to a people's court for protection of civil rights shall be two years.

　　Article 136

　　The limitation of action shall be one year in cases concerning the following:

　　(1) claims for compensation for bodily injuries;

　　(2) sales of substandard goods without proper notice to that effect;

　　(3) delays in paying rent or refusal to pay rent; or

　　(4) loss of or damage to property left in the care of another person.

　　Article 137

　　A limitation of action shall begin when the entitled person knows or should know that his rights have been infringed upon. However, the people's court shall not protect his rights if 20 years have passed since the infringement. Under special circumstances, the people's court may extend the limitation of action.

　　Article 138

　　If a party chooses to fulfil obligations voluntarily after the limitation of action has expired, he shall not be subject to the limitation.

　　Article 139

　　A limitation of action shall be suspended during the last six months of the limitation if the plaintiff cannot exercise his right of claim because of force majeure or other obstacles. The limitation shall resume on the day when the grounds for the suspension are eliminated.

　　Article 140

　　A limitation of action shall be discontinued if suit is brought or if one party makes a claim for or agrees to fulfillment of obligations. A new limitation shall be counted from the time of the discontinuance.

　　Article 141

　　If the law has other stipulations concerning limitation of action, those stipulations shall apply.

　　Chapter VIII Application of Law in Civil Relations with Foreigners

　　Article 142

　　The application of law in civil relations with foreigners shall be determined by the provisions in this chapter.

　　If any international treaty concluded or acceded to by the People's

　　Republic of China contains provisions differing from those in the civil laws of the People's Republic of China, the provisions of the international treaty shall apply, unless the provisions are ones on which the People's Republic of China has announced reservations. International practice may be applied to matters for which neither the law of the

　　People's Republic of China nor any international treaty concluded or acceded to by the People's Republic of China has any provisions.

　　Article 143

　　If a citizen of the People's Republic of China settles in a foreign country, the law of that country may be applicable as regards his capacity for civil conduct.

　　Article 144

　　The ownership of immovable property shall be bound by the law of the place where it is situated.

　　Article 145

　　The parties to a contract involving foreign interests may choose the law applicable to settlement of their contractual disputes, except as otherwise stipulated by law. If the parties to a contract involving

　　foreign interests have not made a choice, the law of the country to which the contract is most closely connected shall be applied.

　　Article 146

　　The law of the place where an infringing act is committed shall apply in handling compensation claims for any damage caused by the act. If both parties are citizens of the same country or have established domicile in another country, the law of their own country or the country of domicile may be applied.

　　An act committed outside the People's Republic of China shall not be treated as an infringing act if under the law of the People's Republic of China it is not considered an infringing act.

　　Article 147

　　The marriage of a citizen of the People's Republic of China to a foreigner shall be bound by the law of the place where they get married, while a divorce shall be bound by the law of the place where a court accepts the case.

　　Article 148

　　Maintenance of a spouse after divorce shall be bound by the law of the country to which the spouse is most closely connected.

　　Article 149

　　In the statutory succession of an estate, movable property shall be bound by the law of the decedent's last place of residence, and immovable property shall be bound by the law of the place where the property is situated.

　　Article 150

　　The application of foreign laws or international practice in accordance with the provisions of this chapter shall not violate the public interest of the People's Republic of China.

　　Chapter IX Supplementary provisions

　　Article 151

　　The people's congresses of the national autonomous areas may formulate separate adaptive or supplementary regulations or provisions in accordance with the principles of this Law and in light of the characteristics of the local nationalities. Those formulated by the people's congresses of autonomous regions shall be submitted in accordance with the law to the

　　Standing Committee of the National People's Congress for approval or for the record. Those formulated by the people's congresses of autonomous prefectures or autonomous counties shall be submitted to the standing committee of the people's congress in the relevant province or autonomous region for approval.

　　Article 152

　　If an enterprise owned by the whole people has been established with the approval of the competent authority of a province, autonomous region or centrally administered municipality or at a higher level and it has already been registered with the administrative agency for industry and commerce, before this Law comes into force, it shall automatically qualify as a legal person without having to re-register as such.

　　Article 153

　　For the purpose of this Law, "force majeure" means unforeseeable, unavoidable and insurmountable objective conditions.

　　Article 154

　　Time periods referred to in the Civil Law shall be calculated by the Gregorian calendar in years, months, days and hours.

　　When a time period is prescribed in hours, calculation of the period shall begin on the prescribed hour. When a time period is prescribed in days, months and years, the day on which the period begins shall not be counted as within the period; calculation shall begin on the next day.

　　If the last day of a time period falls on a Sunday or an official holiday, the day after the holiday shall be taken as the last day.

　　The last day shall end at 24:00 hours. If business hours are applicable, the last day shall end at closing time.

　　Article 155

　　In this Law, the terms "not less than," "not more than," "within" and "expires" shall include the given figure; the terms "under" and "beyond" shall not include the given figure.

　　Article 156

　　This Law shall come into force on January 1, 1987.